Forms of Social Interaction

By  A. Zamroni

Source: Koleksi Zamroni

By paying attention to the social processes that are taking place, we can witness various forms of social interactions that occur in human life. What are some common forms of social interaction? Experts classify the forms of social interaction differently. For example, Gillin and Gillin (1954: 501) classified forms of social interaction into two major groups, namely the associative process (consisting of accommodation, assimilation, and acculturation) and the dissociative process (consisting of competition, contravention, and conflict or contention). Young and Mack (1959: 138) classify forms of social interaction into three, namely opposition (including competition and conflict or clash), cooperation (producing accommodation), and differentiation. As for Shibutani (in Soekanto, 2005: 71) divides forms of social interaction into four, namely accommodation in routine situations, expressions of meetings and suggestions, strategic interactions in conflict, and development of mass behavior.

Even though these experts have different classifications of social interaction, there are no principal or fundamental differences in them. Broadly speaking, the distribution of the forms of interaction is relatively similar, especially with regard to matters of a basic nature. The main interaction processes that can be summarized include the associative process and the dissociative process, as suggested by Gillin and Gillin and Soerjono Soekanto.

A.   Associative Process

The associative process is a social process that develops towards the formation of social unity or integration and encourages the formation of social institutions, institutions or organizations. The associative process can take place in the form of cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, and acculturation. Here is a more detailed explanation.

1.   Cooperation

According to some sociologists, cooperation is a major form of social interaction. Some other sociologists consider that cooperation is the main social process. All forms of social interaction are considered to be returned to cooperation. Young and Mack (1959: 143) even gave an example, if, for example, two people fought, they had to "cooperate" to beat each other.

The example presented by Young and Mack seems to take a scope too broad to obscure the meaning of cooperation itself. Cooperation in this case is certainly not of the sort. The cooperation in question is a joint effort made between individuals, between groups, or between individuals and groups to achieve common goals.

According to Cooley (in Soekanto, 2005: 73), cooperation occurs when people realize that they have the same interests and at the same time have sufficient knowledge and control over themselves to fulfill the intended interests. Cooperation encourages the formation of social unity or integration. Social interaction in the form of cooperation is common at all levels of society and includes all aspects of human life.

Why do people feel the need to cooperate? As a student, you will not be able to gain knowledge properly if you do not collaborate with several other parties, such as teachers, schools, and classmates. That is why, you and all of us, need and even have to work together to achieve our desires and meet our many needs. In addition to safeguarding and fighting for interests, cooperation is also important in order to create social harmony and harmony.

In human life in general, cooperation is a normal part of the social process. However, in certain situations and conditions, cooperation can be formed more strongly. Here are some characteristics or things that we need to pay attention to in relation to cooperation.

a.   The common interest, the urge to fulfill the necessities of life, and the desire to express art will stimulate individuals and groups to cooperate.

b.  Cooperation is likely to be stronger if there is a common enemy or there is a threat that threatens from outside or there are actions from outside parties that offend loyalties that are traditionally or institutionally embedded in the group.

c.   Cooperation can be aggressive if the group for a long time experiences disappointment and feelings of dissatisfaction because its main desires are not fulfilled due to obstacles originating from outside the group (external parties).

 

In sociological theory, forms of cooperation are divided into spontaneous cooperation, directed cooperation, contractual cooperation and traditional cooperation. Spontaneous cooperation is carried out automatically, direct cooperation is carried out as a result of orders from superiors or authorities, contractual cooperation is carried out on a certain basis, and traditional cooperation is carried out as part of the social system. As for the implementation, cooperation is carried out in five forms, namely harmony, bargaining, co-optation, coalition, and joint venture (Thompson and McEwen in Soekanto, 2005: 74–75).

a.   Harmony is cooperation which includes mutual cooperation and helping out.

b.   Bargaining is cooperation as the implementation of an agreement regarding the exchange of goods and services between two or more organizations.

c.   Cooptation is the process of accepting new elements in leadership or the implementation of politics in an organization as a way to avoid shaking the stability of the organization.

d.   A coalition is a combination of cooperation between two or more organizations that have the same goal.

e.   A joint venture is a collaboration in pursuing certain projects, for example, developing telecommunications networks, offshore oil drilling, and procuring school textbooks.

2.  Accommodation

The term accommodation is used in two senses, namely referring to a situation and referring to a process. Accommodation that refers to a situation leads to a balanced interaction between individuals or groups in relation to prevailing social norms and values. Accommodation as a process refers to human efforts to relieve or resolve conflicts in order to achieve stability.

Accomodation is actually a means developed to resolve disputes or disputes without destroying the opposing party or competitor so that the opponent or competitor does not lose personality. Accommodation can be done with different purposes, depending on the circumstances at hand. The accommodation objectives can be formulated as follows:

a.   reduce conflicts between individuals or between groups of people due to differences in understanding or schooling so that a common ground can be reached which results in a new pattern;

b.   prevent or suppress the outbreak of disputes for a while;

c.   open the possibility of cooperation among social groups living separately due to social, cultural and psychological factors;

d.   seek fusion or unification between separate social groups (for example, through mixed marriage or assimilation in a broad sense).

Source: Koleksi Zamroni

As a process, accommodation, among others, has the form of coercion, compromise, arbitration, mediation, conciliation, tolerance, stalemate, adjudication, segregation, and elimination. For clarity, you are welcome to follow the description below.

a.   Coercion is an accommodation in which the process is carried out through coercion, both physically and mentally (psychologically). Coercion is carried out because there are usually weak parties and strong parties. An example is the ruler/government in a totalitarian country that forces its people to carry out certain policies –– in a totalitarian country the rulers are very strong, while the people are very weak, so that the policies of the rulers can always be enforced and implemented even if they are detrimental to the people.

b.   Compromise is accommodation in the form of an agreement or agreement by peaceful means that occurs because the disputing parties reduce their demands on each other. For example, two countries that dispute an island, compromise not to attack each other and take control of the island before there is a legally enforceable decision from the competent international body.

c.   Arbitration is accommodation made using the services of a third party because the two disputing parties are unable to resolve the dispute on their own. Disputes are resolved by a third party appointed by both parties to the dispute or by a competent authority having a higher position than the disputing parties. For example, a dispute between the board of directors of a company and its workers is facilitated by the Ministry of Manpower.

d.  Mediation is a form of accommodation that is almost the same as arbitration, except that the third party who is asked to participate in resolving disputes has a neutral position or position and is not authorized to make a decision. The third party only seeks amicable solutions by providing advice or consultation. For example, the conflict in the Philippines that involved the government and Moro guerrillas included Indonesia as a mediator in trying to achieve peace.

e.   Conciliation is an attempt to bring together the desires of the disputing parties to reach a mutual agreement. Conciliation opens opportunities for disputing parties to adjust to each other, reduce differences, and mutilate attitudes and actions to achieve common goals. An example is labor representatives, company owners, and the Ministry of Manpower sitting together to solve labor problems.

f.    Tolerance, or often called tolerant-participation, is a form of accommodation that is carried out without going through formal (official) approval. Tolerance often arises spontaneously, unconsciously, and unplanned due to the natural reaction of individuals or groups to avoid disputes. For example, in order to maintain calm in the teaching-learning process in the classroom and avoid arguing with the teacher, students with their own awareness do not make fuss or noise.

g.   Stalemate is a form of accommodation characterized by the cessation of a conflict at a certain point due to the fact that the parties to the dispute have equal strength. For example, tensions and strife during the Cold War between the Western Bloc (led by the United States) and the Eastern Bloc (led by the Soviet Union) never developed into world war and nuclear war due to the fact that both of them had equal forces and weapons.

h.   Adjudication is accommodation made in the form of settlement of a case or dispute through a judicial institution. An example is a land dispute between residents of a village and a state-owned company that is resolved through a court hearing.

i.    Segregation is accommodation in the form of separating and avoiding each other in an effort to reduce tension and avoid sharp disputes. For example, to avoid physical clashes, student demonstrators and security guards gradually withdrew from each other and did not provoke provocation.

j.    Elimination is accommodation that occurs as a result of one of the disputing parties resigning as a reflection of giving in. An example is to face demands for an increase in workers' wages, a company raises wages according to the wishes of the workers.

3.   Assimilation

Assimilation is an effort to reduce differences and unify attitudes and actions between individuals or groups in order to produce agreements based on common interests and goals. People who assimilate into a community group no longer differentiate themselves from the group so that they are not considered foreigners. They identify with the interests and goals of the group.

When two groups of people assimilate, the boundaries between the two groups will disappear. The two of them merged into one group. Assimilation is characterized by developing the same attitudes with the aim of achieving unity or, at least, achieving integration of organization, thought, and action.

Assimilation occurs in societies of different cultures so that new cultures are formed for a long time. Asimialsi occurs after going through the cooperation and accommodation stages. Koentjaraningrat (in Soekanto, 2005: 81) states that assimilation can occur when the following conditions are met.

a.   There are groups of people who have different cultures.

b.   There is interaction between individuals as group members directly and intensively for a long time.

c.   The culture of each group experiences changes and adaptations.

As such, assimilation is closely linked with developing the same attitudes, desires and goals. There are several forms of social interaction that give direction to the assimilation process. The forms of social interaction in question are as follows.

a.   The social interactions carried out by the parties involved are mutually approaching. One party tries to approach the other party, while the other party does the same.

b.   The social interactions that are carried out do not experience obstacles in the form of obstacles or restrictions. Social interactions that lead to assimilation will stop if you encounter severe obstacles or restrictions.

c.   The social interactions carried out are direct and primary. This means that the interaction is carried out directly confronting and involving the perpetrators, without intermediaries.

d.   The social interactions that take place take place in a high, constant and balanced frequency. This means that the interaction actors often make approaches and respond to them regularly and there is a balance between the parties concerned.

Assimilation also requires supporting factors. This factor is necessary so that assimilation can run as expected. The following are the supporting factors that will facilitate and facilitate the assimilation process:

a.    tolerance between individuals or between groups of different cultures,

b.   equal opportunities in the economic field,

c.   respect and respect for other people (foreigners) and their culture,

d.   open attitude of the ruling class in society,

e.   equality in cultural elements,

f.    the occurrence of mixed marriages between groups of different cultures (amalgamation),

g.   there is a common enemy coming from outside.

On the other hand, certain things are also found that hinder assimilation. This can frustrate the assimilation process. The following are some of the barrier factors for assimilation:

a.   the isolation of the life of certain groups in society, which is usually experienced by minority groups;

b.   lack of knowledge about the culture at hand;

c.   there is a feeling of fear of the forces of other cultures faced;

d.   there is a feeling that the culture of a certain group is superior to that of other groups;

e.   there are differences in physical characteristics, such as height, skin color, and hair color;

f.   there is a feeling of a strong attachment to one's own culture (in-group feeling);

g.  disturbance of minority groups by the strong and powerful majority group.

4.   Acculturation

Acculturation is the result of a combination of two different cultures which form a new culture without eliminating the characteristics of each culture. The acculturation process usually takes a relatively long time. For example, punden terraces in Hindu culture combined with mosques in Islamic culture produce Demak mosque architecture with multilevel roofs.

B.  Dissociative Processes

Dissociative social processes are often called oppositional processes. The dissociative process can be said to be opposite to the associative process. If the associative process leads to a cooperative relationship that leads to unification, the dissociative process leads to a rivalry relationship that leads to separation, face to face, and even opposites. Therefore, dissociative social processes usually take place in forms that tend to be frictional and confrontational. Dissociative social processes can be grouped into three forms, namely competition, contravention, and conflict or conflict.

1.  Competition

Competition is a social process characterized by individuals or groups of people competing for profit through areas of life that are the center of public attention by attracting public attention or sharpening prejudice without using threats or violence (Gillin and Gillin in Soekanto, 2005: 91). Competition occurs in two forms, namely personal competition and group competition. Personal competition, for example, individual competition between students in the class to get the highest score in mathematics. Group competition, for example, is competition between two printing companies to win the reference book printing tender held by the government.

Competition occurs, among other things, due to limited living resources, the desire to stand out, and the necessity of the system. Competition can take place in various fields and aspects of life, such as in social, economic, political and cultural aspects. The following describes the competition in the four areas in more detail.

a.   Competition in the social field is most clearly seen in the competition for status and roles in social life. Social competition is generally driven by the desire to gain recognition of status, degree and role. Those who are considered or feel themselves to be of low status tend to try to get a certain position in society so that their prestige and role become more respected and appreciated.

b.  Competition in the economy occurs due to limited supply (goods and services) relative to the number of consumers. Competition is intended to regulate production and distribution. Competition in the economic sector will benefit society because producers will compete to produce goods and services of good quality so that people have many choices in using goods and services.

c.   Competition in politics can occur due to the multi-party state administration system which demands pluralism of groups or political parties. Democracy is a system that primarily encourages political competition. Political groups –– usually accommodated through political parties –– compete in general elections for people's votes to determine people's representatives in parliament and fill positions in government.

d.  Competition in culture can occur as a result of the emergence of a desire to exercise cultural domination by certain nations or communities against the cultures of other nations and communities. Cultural competition can occur in the fields of religion, social institutions, language and the arts.

 

Does competition have benefits and functions? Within certain limits and as long as it is conducted fairly and fairly, competition can clearly provide positive benefits and functions. The benefits and functions of competition, among others, are as follows.

a.   Competition can channel the competitive desire of individuals and groups to win high awards.

b.   Competition becomes a means of selection to determine the best individuals and place them in positions and roles that are in accordance with their respective abilities.

c.   Competition becomes a tool to filter the citizens of the working class which will result in an effective division of labor.

d.  Competition will encourage individuals or groups to learn and improve competence (ability).

2.  Contravention

Contravention is a social process that exists between competition and conflict or conflict. Contravention is characterized by symptoms of a person's self-uncertainty, uncertainty of a plan, hidden feelings of dislike, and hatred or doubt about one's personality. In its pure form, contravention is a hidden attitude towards other people or cultural elements of certain groups. This attitude can turn into hatred, but not into conflict or contention. For example, someone is suspicious of other people who are often encountered or someone doubts the benefits of a policy that will be implemented by the government.

Leopold von Wiese and Howard Becker (in Soekanto, 2005: 95) divide contravention into five forms, namely general, simple, intensive, secret, and tactical. Here is the explanation.

a.   Common forms, for example, are rejection, resistance, obstruction, protest,  harassment, violent action, and disrupting the plans of other parties.

b.   Simple forms, for example, include refuting the statements of others in public, berating with dark leaflets, slandering, and reviling.

c.   Intensive forms, for example, incite, spread rumors, and upset others.

d.   A secret form, for example, is to divulge the opponent's secrets and commit treason.

e.   The tactical form, for example, surprises the opponent and confuses the other.

In addition to analyzing contravention from the aspect of form, Leopold von Wiese and Becker also discussed it in terms of type. According to both, there are three general types of contravention, namely the contravention of the generation of society, contravention of gender (sex), and parliamentary contravention (in Soekanto, 2005: 96–97). In the following you are invited to follow the explanation.

a.   Generational contradictions in society generally arise when there are rapid changes in society. As a result of changing times, there are often doubts and prejudices among the younger generation regarding the values ​​adopted and instilled by the older generation. This is because the younger generation generally has a more open and loose view because they are shaped by education and modern life, while the older generation is usually more closed and rigid because they are shaped by conservative (conservative) life experiences and education.

b.  Sex (sexual) conventions are commonly related to the relationships and roles of men and women in the household, world of work, and in public (public) life. The values ​​of society in modern times generally have placed men and women in an equal position (emancipation). However, due to historical and cultural (custom) factors, many women from certain circles still feel uncertain about their position, abilities, and roles, while on the other hand men often respond with doubt, apathy, underestimate, and feel competitive.

c.   Parliamentary contradictions occur in relations or relationships between majority and minority groups in legislative, educational, religious, and so on. The sometimes unbalanced relationship between the majority and the minority groups causes the marginalization of the position and role of the minority, which triggers prejudice and sentiments.

 

3.   Conflict

Disputes or conflicts are social processes characterized by the presence of individuals or groups trying to achieve goals by opposing other parties (opponents) with threats and/or violence. In a conflict, the opposite (involved) parties try to attack each other to destroy and make their opponents powerless. Conflicts can occur, among others, as a result of differences between individuals, cultural differences, differences in interests, and (rapid) social change. The differences that can trigger further conflict can be described as follows.

a.   Differences between individuals can appear in the form of differences in feelings, opinions, understandings, and so on. These differences can develop into acts of attacking and eliminating one another.

b.   Cultural differences can lead to personality differences. Individual personality is largely determined by cultural patterns that underlie the development of personality. These differences can lead to the emergence of different patterns of thought and stance which in turn can lead to conflict.

c.   Obviously different interests can create conflicts. The interests of different individuals and groups in various spheres of life –– economic, political, legal, and so on –– can easily lead to conflict, especially if each individual or group insists on only highlighting their respective interests.

d.   Rapid and drastic social change will change the values ​​in society. This change encourages the birth of individuals and groups with different views, understandings, and principles, apart from causing psychological shock. This often stimulates conflicts both between individuals and between groups.

Society generally wants conflict not to happen in their life. However, in reality, social life is very difficult to be completely free from conflict. Conflicts in social life keep appearing. The forms of conflict that occur include personal conflicts, racial conflicts, class conflicts, political conflicts, and international conflicts.

a.   Personal conflict is a conflict between two persons for certain reasons. This conflict can occur not only between two people who do not know each other, but also between two people who already know each other or are friends. For example, two employees of a company shout at each other and then get into a fight over a misunderstanding.

b.   Racial conflict is a conflict between two races. This conflict can occur between majority and minority races. For example, the fighting between blacks and whites in South Africa resulted from the imposition of apartheid that oppressed black people.

c.   Conflicts between social classes are disputes that occur between two social groups. An example is a conflict between an employer and a worker due to inhumane hours of work and wages.

d.   Political conflicts are conflicts that occur between one political group and another. For example, a clash between two political parties ahead of the general election due to campaign irregularities.

e.   International conflicts are conflicts that occur in relations between countries in the world. Many international conflicts are caused by differences in ideology and political and economic interests. For example, the war between the United States and Vietnam was due to ideological differences (the United States adopted capitalism, Vietnam adopted communism).

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Then, with its form which tends to create instability and disharmony, is conflict completely useless and must be avoided? For the sake of social calm and harmony, the public generally does not want conflict, but conflict remains part of a social process that is impossible to avoid forever. Even in the most harmonious of societies, conflict –– even on a small scale –– can still arise.

Whether a conflict can have positive or negative consequences depends on the issues that are the source of the conflict and the social structure. As long as it does not conflict with patterns of social relations in certain social structures, according to Soerjono Soekanto (2005: 100), conflict will in fact be positive. This is because such conflicts tend to allow for the readjustment of social norms and relationships within the group according to the needs of individuals and groups.

In fact, conflict is a natural and natural thing in the social process. Human social life will often be colored by conflict –– in various forms and scales –– because the unique and different nature of each human individual will cause differences in tastes, desires, views, understandings, principles, beliefs, and so on, all of which can lead to disputes. and contention. The social process cannot be completely free and sterile from conflict.

According to Soekanto (2005: 100), in a group where social interaction between the members is not too tight, it is likely that the conflict will not cause negative consequences. It can be said, in some cases, conflict will actually mature the lives of individuals and social groups. Conflict can also strengthen the joints of social life when it can be managed appropriately.

Conflict is seen as a way to break down and reduce tensions as long as it can be confined to the issue of the cause. Less tension resulting from the conflict will lead to increased stability and integration. Furthermore, in more detail, conflict can have several positive consequences as follows.

a.   Conflict can create a balance between the forces that exist in society.

b.   Conflict can pave the way for identifying sources of dissatisfaction within groups and communities.

c.   Conflict can make individuals and communities wiser and more mature in dealing with differences and diversity.

d.   Conflict can help find effective solutions in overcoming various problems in an effort to create social cohesion and harmony.

e.   Conflict can help revive social norms or foster new social norms in accordance with the development of society.

f.   Conflict can encourage individuals and groups to conduct introspection and improvement and be self-aware of their situation and position in society.