By A. Zamroni
Source: Koleksi Zamroni
By paying attention to the social processes that are taking place, we can witness various forms of social interactions that occur in human life. What are some common forms of social interaction? Experts classify the forms of social interaction differently. For example, Gillin and Gillin (1954: 501) classified forms of social interaction into two major groups, namely the associative process (consisting of accommodation, assimilation, and acculturation) and the dissociative process (consisting of competition, contravention, and conflict or contention). Young and Mack (1959: 138) classify forms of social interaction into three, namely opposition (including competition and conflict or clash), cooperation (producing accommodation), and differentiation. As for Shibutani (in Soekanto, 2005: 71) divides forms of social interaction into four, namely accommodation in routine situations, expressions of meetings and suggestions, strategic interactions in conflict, and development of mass behavior.
Even
though these experts have different classifications of social interaction,
there are no principal or fundamental differences in them. Broadly speaking,
the distribution of the forms of interaction is relatively similar, especially
with regard to matters of a basic nature. The main interaction processes that
can be summarized include the associative process and the dissociative process,
as suggested by Gillin and Gillin and Soerjono Soekanto.
A. Associative
Process
The
associative process is a social process that develops towards the formation of
social unity or integration and encourages the formation of social
institutions, institutions or organizations. The associative process can take
place in the form of cooperation, accommodation, assimilation, and
acculturation. Here is a more detailed explanation.
1. Cooperation
According
to some sociologists, cooperation is a major form of social interaction. Some
other sociologists consider that cooperation is the main social process. All
forms of social interaction are considered to be returned to cooperation. Young
and Mack (1959: 143) even gave an example, if, for example, two people fought,
they had to "cooperate" to beat each other.
The
example presented by Young and Mack seems to take a scope too broad to obscure
the meaning of cooperation itself. Cooperation in this case is certainly not of
the sort. The cooperation in question is a joint effort made between
individuals, between groups, or between individuals and groups to achieve
common goals.
According
to Cooley (in Soekanto, 2005: 73), cooperation occurs when people realize that
they have the same interests and at the same time have sufficient knowledge and
control over themselves to fulfill the intended interests. Cooperation
encourages the formation of social unity or integration. Social interaction in
the form of cooperation is common at all levels of society and includes all
aspects of human life.
Why do
people feel the need to cooperate? As a student, you will not be able to gain
knowledge properly if you do not collaborate with several other parties, such
as teachers, schools, and classmates. That is why, you and all of us, need and
even have to work together to achieve our desires and meet our many needs. In
addition to safeguarding and fighting for interests, cooperation is also
important in order to create social harmony and harmony.
In
human life in general, cooperation is a normal part of the social process.
However, in certain situations and conditions, cooperation can be formed more
strongly. Here are some characteristics or things that we need to pay attention
to in relation to cooperation.
a.
The common interest, the urge to fulfill
the necessities of life, and the desire to express art will stimulate
individuals and groups to cooperate.
b. Cooperation is likely to be stronger if there
is a common enemy or there is a threat that threatens from outside or there are
actions from outside parties that offend loyalties that are traditionally or
institutionally embedded in the group.
c. Cooperation can be aggressive if the group for
a long time experiences disappointment and feelings of dissatisfaction because
its main desires are not fulfilled due to obstacles originating from outside
the group (external parties).
In
sociological theory, forms of cooperation are divided into spontaneous
cooperation, directed cooperation, contractual cooperation and traditional
cooperation. Spontaneous cooperation is carried out automatically, direct
cooperation is carried out as a result of orders from superiors or authorities,
contractual cooperation is carried out on a certain basis, and traditional
cooperation is carried out as part of the social system. As for the
implementation, cooperation is carried out in five forms, namely harmony,
bargaining, co-optation, coalition, and joint venture (Thompson and McEwen in
Soekanto, 2005: 74–75).
a.
Harmony is cooperation which includes
mutual cooperation and helping out.
b. Bargaining is cooperation as the
implementation of an agreement regarding the exchange of goods and services
between two or more organizations.
c.
Cooptation is the process of accepting
new elements in leadership or the implementation of politics in an organization
as a way to avoid shaking the stability of the organization.
d. A coalition is a combination of
cooperation between two or more organizations that have the same goal.
e.
A joint venture is a collaboration in
pursuing certain projects, for example, developing telecommunications networks,
offshore oil drilling, and procuring school textbooks.
2. Accommodation
The
term accommodation is used in two senses, namely referring to a situation and
referring to a process. Accommodation that refers to a situation leads to a
balanced interaction between individuals or groups in relation to prevailing
social norms and values. Accommodation as a process refers to human efforts to
relieve or resolve conflicts in order to achieve stability.
Accomodation
is actually a means developed to resolve disputes or disputes without
destroying the opposing party or competitor so that the opponent or competitor
does not lose personality. Accommodation can be done with different purposes,
depending on the circumstances at hand. The accommodation objectives can be
formulated as follows:
a.
reduce conflicts between individuals or
between groups of people due to differences in understanding or schooling so
that a common ground can be reached which results in a new pattern;
b. prevent or suppress the outbreak of
disputes for a while;
c.
open the possibility of cooperation
among social groups living separately due to social, cultural and psychological
factors;
d. seek fusion or unification between separate
social groups (for example, through mixed marriage or assimilation in a broad
sense).
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As
a process, accommodation, among others, has the form of coercion, compromise,
arbitration, mediation, conciliation, tolerance, stalemate, adjudication,
segregation, and elimination. For clarity, you are welcome to follow the
description below.
a.
Coercion is an accommodation in which
the process is carried out through coercion, both physically and mentally
(psychologically). Coercion is carried out because there are usually weak
parties and strong parties. An example is the ruler/government in a
totalitarian country that forces its people to carry out certain policies –– in
a totalitarian country the rulers are very strong, while the people are very
weak, so that the policies of the rulers can always be enforced and implemented
even if they are detrimental to the people.
b. Compromise is accommodation in the form
of an agreement or agreement by peaceful means that occurs because the
disputing parties reduce their demands on each other. For example, two
countries that dispute an island, compromise not to attack each other and take
control of the island before there is a legally enforceable decision from the
competent international body.
c.
Arbitration is accommodation made using
the services of a third party because the two disputing parties are unable to
resolve the dispute on their own. Disputes are resolved by a third party
appointed by both parties to the dispute or by a competent authority having a
higher position than the disputing parties. For example, a dispute between the
board of directors of a company and its workers is facilitated by the Ministry
of Manpower.
d. Mediation is a form of accommodation that
is almost the same as arbitration, except that the third party who is asked to
participate in resolving disputes has a neutral position or position and is not
authorized to make a decision. The third party only seeks amicable solutions by
providing advice or consultation. For example, the conflict in the Philippines
that involved the government and Moro guerrillas included Indonesia as a
mediator in trying to achieve peace.
e.
Conciliation is an attempt to bring
together the desires of the disputing parties to reach a mutual agreement.
Conciliation opens opportunities for disputing parties to adjust to each other,
reduce differences, and mutilate attitudes and actions to achieve common goals.
An example is labor representatives, company owners, and the Ministry of
Manpower sitting together to solve labor problems.
f.
Tolerance, or often called
tolerant-participation, is a form of accommodation that is carried out without
going through formal (official) approval. Tolerance often arises spontaneously,
unconsciously, and unplanned due to the natural reaction of individuals or
groups to avoid disputes. For example, in order to maintain calm in the
teaching-learning process in the classroom and avoid arguing with the teacher,
students with their own awareness do not make fuss or noise.
g. Stalemate is a form of accommodation
characterized by the cessation of a conflict at a certain point due to the fact
that the parties to the dispute have equal strength. For example, tensions and
strife during the Cold War between the Western Bloc (led by the United States)
and the Eastern Bloc (led by the Soviet Union) never developed into world war
and nuclear war due to the fact that both of them had equal forces and weapons.
h. Adjudication is accommodation made in the
form of settlement of a case or dispute through a judicial institution. An
example is a land dispute between residents of a village and a state-owned
company that is resolved through a court hearing.
i.
Segregation is accommodation in the form
of separating and avoiding each other in an effort to reduce tension and avoid
sharp disputes. For example, to avoid physical clashes, student demonstrators
and security guards gradually withdrew from each other and did not provoke
provocation.
j. Elimination is accommodation that occurs as a
result of one of the disputing parties resigning as a reflection of giving in.
An example is to face demands for an increase in workers' wages, a company
raises wages according to the wishes of the workers.
3. Assimilation
Assimilation
is an effort to reduce differences and unify attitudes and actions between
individuals or groups in order to produce agreements based on common interests
and goals. People who assimilate into a community group no longer differentiate
themselves from the group so that they are not considered foreigners. They
identify with the interests and goals of the group.
When
two groups of people assimilate, the boundaries between the two groups will
disappear. The two of them merged into one group. Assimilation is characterized
by developing the same attitudes with the aim of achieving unity or, at least,
achieving integration of organization, thought, and action.
Assimilation
occurs in societies of different cultures so that new cultures are formed for a
long time. Asimialsi occurs after going through the cooperation and
accommodation stages. Koentjaraningrat (in Soekanto, 2005: 81) states that
assimilation can occur when the following conditions are met.
a.
There are groups of people who have
different cultures.
b. There is interaction between individuals
as group members directly and intensively for a long time.
c. The culture of each group experiences changes
and adaptations.
As
such, assimilation is closely linked with developing the same attitudes,
desires and goals. There are several forms of social interaction that give
direction to the assimilation process. The forms of social interaction in
question are as follows.
a.
The social interactions carried out by
the parties involved are mutually approaching. One party tries to approach the
other party, while the other party does the same.
b. The social interactions that are carried
out do not experience obstacles in the form of obstacles or restrictions.
Social interactions that lead to assimilation will stop if you encounter severe
obstacles or restrictions.
c.
The social interactions carried out are
direct and primary. This means that the interaction is carried out directly
confronting and involving the perpetrators, without intermediaries.
d. The social interactions that take place take
place in a high, constant and balanced frequency. This means that the
interaction actors often make approaches and respond to them regularly and
there is a balance between the parties concerned.
Assimilation
also requires supporting factors. This factor is necessary so that assimilation
can run as expected. The following are the supporting factors that will
facilitate and facilitate the assimilation process:
a.
tolerance between individuals or between
groups of different cultures,
b. equal opportunities in the economic
field,
c.
respect and respect for other people
(foreigners) and their culture,
d. open attitude of the ruling class in
society,
e.
equality in cultural elements,
f.
the occurrence of mixed marriages
between groups of different cultures (amalgamation),
g. there is a common enemy coming from outside.
On
the other hand, certain things are also found that hinder assimilation. This
can frustrate the assimilation process. The following are some of the barrier
factors for assimilation:
a.
the isolation of the life of certain
groups in society, which is usually experienced by minority groups;
b. lack of knowledge about the culture at hand;
c.
there is a feeling of fear of the forces
of other cultures faced;
d. there is a feeling that the culture of a
certain group is superior to that of other groups;
e. there are differences in physical
characteristics, such as height, skin color, and hair color;
f.
there is a feeling of a strong
attachment to one's own culture (in-group feeling);
g. disturbance of minority groups by the
strong and powerful majority group.
4. Acculturation
Acculturation
is the result of a combination of two different cultures which form a new
culture without eliminating the characteristics of each culture. The
acculturation process usually takes a relatively long time. For example, punden
terraces in Hindu culture combined with mosques in Islamic culture produce
Demak mosque architecture with multilevel roofs.
B. Dissociative
Processes
Dissociative
social processes are often called oppositional processes. The dissociative
process can be said to be opposite to the associative process. If the
associative process leads to a cooperative relationship that leads to
unification, the dissociative process leads to a rivalry relationship that
leads to separation, face to face, and even opposites. Therefore, dissociative
social processes usually take place in forms that tend to be frictional and
confrontational. Dissociative social processes can be grouped into three forms,
namely competition, contravention, and conflict or conflict.
1. Competition
Competition
is a social process characterized by individuals or groups of people competing
for profit through areas of life that are the center of public attention by
attracting public attention or sharpening prejudice without using threats or
violence (Gillin and Gillin in Soekanto, 2005: 91). Competition occurs in two
forms, namely personal competition and group competition. Personal competition,
for example, individual competition between students in the class to get the
highest score in mathematics. Group competition, for example, is competition
between two printing companies to win the reference book printing tender held
by the government.
Competition
occurs, among other things, due to limited living resources, the desire to
stand out, and the necessity of the system. Competition can take place in
various fields and aspects of life, such as in social, economic, political and
cultural aspects. The following describes the competition in the four areas in
more detail.
a.
Competition in the social field is most
clearly seen in the competition for status and roles in social life. Social
competition is generally driven by the desire to gain recognition of status,
degree and role. Those who are considered or feel themselves to be of low
status tend to try to get a certain position in society so that their prestige and
role become more respected and appreciated.
b. Competition in the economy occurs due to
limited supply (goods and services) relative to the number of consumers.
Competition is intended to regulate production and distribution. Competition in
the economic sector will benefit society because producers will compete to
produce goods and services of good quality so that people have many choices in
using goods and services.
c.
Competition in politics can occur due to
the multi-party state administration system which demands pluralism of groups
or political parties. Democracy is a system that primarily encourages political
competition. Political groups –– usually accommodated through political parties
–– compete in general elections for people's votes to determine people's
representatives in parliament and fill positions in government.
d. Competition in culture can occur as a
result of the emergence of a desire to exercise cultural domination by certain
nations or communities against the cultures of other nations and communities.
Cultural competition can occur in the fields of religion, social institutions,
language and the arts.
Does
competition have benefits and functions? Within certain limits and as long as
it is conducted fairly and fairly, competition can clearly provide positive
benefits and functions. The benefits and functions of competition, among
others, are as follows.
a.
Competition can channel the competitive
desire of individuals and groups to win high awards.
b. Competition becomes a means of selection
to determine the best individuals and place them in positions and roles that
are in accordance with their respective abilities.
c.
Competition becomes a tool to filter the
citizens of the working class which will result in an effective division of
labor.
d. Competition will encourage individuals or
groups to learn and improve competence (ability).
2. Contravention
Contravention
is a social process that exists between competition and conflict or conflict.
Contravention is characterized by symptoms of a person's self-uncertainty,
uncertainty of a plan, hidden feelings of dislike, and hatred or doubt about
one's personality. In its pure form, contravention is a hidden attitude towards
other people or cultural elements of certain groups. This attitude can turn
into hatred, but not into conflict or contention. For example, someone is
suspicious of other people who are often encountered or someone doubts the
benefits of a policy that will be implemented by the government.
Leopold
von Wiese and Howard Becker (in Soekanto, 2005: 95) divide contravention into
five forms, namely general, simple, intensive, secret, and tactical. Here is
the explanation.
a.
Common forms, for example, are
rejection, resistance, obstruction, protest, harassment, violent action, and
disrupting the plans of other parties.
b. Simple forms, for example, include
refuting the statements of others in public, berating with dark leaflets,
slandering, and reviling.
c.
Intensive forms, for example, incite,
spread rumors, and upset others.
d. A secret form, for example, is to divulge
the opponent's secrets and commit treason.
e. The tactical form, for example, surprises the
opponent and confuses the other.
In
addition to analyzing contravention from the aspect of form, Leopold von Wiese and
Becker also discussed it in terms of type. According to both, there are three
general types of contravention, namely the contravention of the generation of
society, contravention of gender (sex), and parliamentary contravention (in
Soekanto, 2005: 96–97). In the following you are invited to follow the
explanation.
a.
Generational contradictions in society
generally arise when there are rapid changes in society. As a result of
changing times, there are often doubts and prejudices among the younger generation
regarding the values adopted
and instilled by the older generation. This is because the younger generation
generally has a more open and loose view because they are shaped by education
and modern life, while the older generation is usually more closed and rigid
because they are shaped by conservative (conservative) life experiences and
education.
b. Sex (sexual) conventions are commonly
related to the relationships and roles of men and women in the household, world
of work, and in public (public) life. The values of society in modern times
generally have placed men and women in an equal position (emancipation).
However, due to historical and cultural (custom) factors, many women from
certain circles still feel uncertain about their position, abilities, and
roles, while on the other hand men often respond with doubt, apathy, underestimate,
and feel competitive.
c.
Parliamentary contradictions occur in
relations or relationships between majority and minority groups in legislative,
educational, religious, and so on. The sometimes unbalanced relationship
between the majority and the minority groups causes the marginalization of the
position and role of the minority, which triggers prejudice and sentiments.
3. Conflict
Disputes
or conflicts are social processes characterized by the presence of individuals
or groups trying to achieve goals by opposing other parties (opponents) with
threats and/or violence. In a conflict, the opposite (involved) parties try to
attack each other to destroy and make their opponents powerless. Conflicts can
occur, among others, as a result of differences between individuals, cultural
differences, differences in interests, and (rapid) social change. The
differences that can trigger further conflict can be described as follows.
a.
Differences between individuals can
appear in the form of differences in feelings, opinions, understandings, and so
on. These differences can develop into acts of attacking and eliminating one
another.
b. Cultural differences can lead to personality
differences. Individual personality is largely determined by cultural patterns
that underlie the development of personality. These differences can lead to the
emergence of different patterns of thought and stance which in turn can lead to
conflict.
c.
Obviously different interests can create
conflicts. The interests of different individuals and groups in various spheres
of life –– economic, political, legal, and so on –– can easily lead to
conflict, especially if each individual or group insists on only highlighting
their respective interests.
d. Rapid and drastic social change will change the
values in
society. This change encourages the birth of individuals and groups with
different views, understandings, and principles, apart from causing
psychological shock. This often stimulates conflicts both between individuals
and between groups.
Society
generally wants conflict not to happen in their life. However, in reality,
social life is very difficult to be completely free from conflict. Conflicts in
social life keep appearing. The forms of conflict that occur include personal
conflicts, racial conflicts, class conflicts, political conflicts, and
international conflicts.
a.
Personal conflict is a conflict between
two persons for certain reasons. This conflict can occur not only between two
people who do not know each other, but also between two people who already know
each other or are friends. For example, two employees of a company shout at
each other and then get into a fight over a misunderstanding.
b.
Racial conflict is a conflict between two
races. This conflict can occur between majority and minority races. For
example, the fighting between blacks and whites in South Africa resulted from
the imposition of apartheid that oppressed black people.
c. Conflicts between social classes are disputes
that occur between two social groups. An example is a conflict between an
employer and a worker due to inhumane hours of work and wages.
d. Political conflicts are conflicts that
occur between one political group and another. For example, a clash between two
political parties ahead of the general election due to campaign irregularities.
e. International conflicts are conflicts that
occur in relations between countries in the world. Many international conflicts
are caused by differences in ideology and political and economic interests. For
example, the war between the United States and Vietnam was due to ideological
differences (the United States adopted capitalism, Vietnam adopted communism).
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Then,
with its form which tends to create instability and disharmony, is conflict
completely useless and must be avoided? For the sake of social calm and
harmony, the public generally does not want conflict, but conflict remains part
of a social process that is impossible to avoid forever. Even in the most
harmonious of societies, conflict –– even on a small scale –– can still arise.
Whether
a conflict can have positive or negative consequences depends on the issues
that are the source of the conflict and the social structure. As long as it
does not conflict with patterns of social relations in certain social
structures, according to Soerjono Soekanto (2005: 100), conflict will in fact
be positive. This is because such conflicts tend to allow for the readjustment
of social norms and relationships within the group according to the needs of
individuals and groups.
In
fact, conflict is a natural and natural thing in the social process. Human
social life will often be colored by conflict –– in various forms and scales ––
because the unique and different nature of each human individual will cause
differences in tastes, desires, views, understandings, principles, beliefs, and
so on, all of which can lead to disputes. and contention. The social process
cannot be completely free and sterile from conflict.
According
to Soekanto (2005: 100), in a group where social interaction between the
members is not too tight, it is likely that the conflict will not cause
negative consequences. It can be said, in some cases, conflict will actually
mature the lives of individuals and social groups. Conflict can also strengthen
the joints of social life when it can be managed appropriately.
Conflict
is seen as a way to break down and reduce tensions as long as it can be
confined to the issue of the cause. Less tension resulting from the conflict
will lead to increased stability and integration. Furthermore, in more detail,
conflict can have several positive consequences as follows.
a.
Conflict can create a balance between
the forces that exist in society.
b. Conflict can pave the way for identifying
sources of dissatisfaction within groups and communities.
c.
Conflict can make individuals and
communities wiser and more mature in dealing with differences and diversity.
d. Conflict can help find effective
solutions in overcoming various problems in an effort to create social cohesion
and harmony.
e.
Conflict can help revive social norms or
foster new social norms in accordance with the development of society.
f.
Conflict can encourage individuals and
groups to conduct introspection and improvement and be self-aware of their
situation and position in society.
