By Akhmad Zamroni
The implementation or
application of democracy is inseparable from the assumption that democracy is a
sound political or constitutional system, one that is believed to bring about
many positive outcomes. Samuel Huntington, a political scientist at Harvard
University, identified three waves of democracy in the political systems of
various countries. The first wave of democracy occurred during the French
Revolution and the American Revolution, marked by the expansion of suffrage
(1828–1926). The second wave of democracy emerged during and after World War II
as a result of Allied occupations that spurred the formation of new
institutions (1943–1962). The third wave of democracy emerged, marked by the
large number of countries worldwide that adopted democracy as their political
system (1974–... ).
However, the history of
democracy actually began long before the period outlined by Huntington. The
waves of democracy described by Huntington represent the practice of democracy
in its modern and complex form. Democracy in its simplest form, however, had
been practiced since ancient Greece in the pre-Christian era.
Democracy was first
implemented in Greece from the 6th to the 3rd centuries BCE. The implementation
of democracy at that time was based on the concept of democracy from ancient
Greek culture. The form or model of democracy adopted was direct democracy,
which was applied on a limited basis in entities known as city-states—small
states whose territory was confined to a single city.
Direct democracy is a form of
government in which political decisions and policies are made directly by all
citizens, acting in accordance with the principles and procedures of majority
rule. Direct democracy could be effectively implemented in Greece at that time
because living conditions were still simple, its scope of application was
limited (a state consisting of a city and its surrounding areas), and the
population was small (approximately 300,000 citizens in a single city-state).
Direct democracy could also be implemented effectively because democratic
provisions applied only to official citizens, who constituted only a small
portion of the population—democracy did not apply to slaves and foreign merchants
(who made up the majority of the population).
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| Foto: Council of Europe/Facebook |
The Greek democratic system
gradually faded and disappeared from the political system and life of the
Western world after the Romans—who had still adopted the Greek democratic
system—were conquered by Western European tribes and the European continent
entered the Middle Ages (600–1400). The Middle Ages are often equated with the
Dark Ages. The social structure of that era was feudal; social and spiritual
life was controlled by the Pope and religious officials, and the political
landscape was marked by power struggles among the nobility.
The ideas and practice of
democracy began to show signs of revival following the emergence of the Magna
Carta in 1215 in England. This document was created, on the one hand, to limit
the rights or powers of the king (King John of England) and, on the other hand,
to recognize and guarantee certain rights and privileges of the king’s subjects
(the nobility). Given its nature, the Magna Carta became a milestone in the
resurgence of democratic ideas and practices.
The emergence of the
Renaissance (1350–1600) and the Reformation (1500–1650) reinforced the rise of
democracy. The Renaissance, which emerged primarily in Southern Europe
(particularly Italy), was an era marked by a resurgence of interest in
classical literature (ancient Greece), the development of new arts and
literature, and the growth of modern science — fields that had been
marginalized during the Middle Ages. Meanwhile, the Reformation was a reform
movement that gained significant support in Northern Europe (Germany,
Switzerland, and elsewhere).
During the Middle Ages, the European public’s attention was focused solely on religious matters and the edicts of church leaders. However, thanks to the Renaissance, the European public’s attention shifted to secular issues, and many new ideas began to emerge. Meanwhile, the Reformation and the religious conflicts that followed freed society from the church’s dominance in the spiritual, social, and political spheres. This led to the separation of church and state. At that time, the idea of the importance of religious freedom and a clear separation between religious and secular matters — particularly in the realm of state affairs or governance — gained significant traction.
The Renaissance and the Reformation
subsequently led European (Western European) society to what is known as the
Enlightenment and rationalism. The Enlightenment was a movement that emphasized
the use of reason, advocated a critical approach to thought, and encouraged the
investigation of everything in the natural world, while rationalism was a
movement that prioritized reason. Both sparked a desire to free people’s minds
from the constraints imposed by the church and to base thought entirely on
reason.
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| Reaseach & Writing: Dorothy Neufeld and Niccolo Conte; Design: Sabrina Lam |
Freedom of thought paved the way for the expansion of ideas in the fields of politics and government. From this arose the idea that the people possessed political rights that could not be manipulated by the king. The king, who at that time held absolute (unlimited) power, faced intense criticism and pressure. Criticism of royal absolutism received massive support from the middle class.
The emergence of the idea or
theory of the social contract further reinforced the understanding and
awareness that the king’s power was not absolute and that society (the people)
possessed political rights that must be respected. The idea of the social
contract (which, among other sources, emerged from the writings of John Locke
and Montesquieu) asserts that the relationship between the king and the people
is based on a contract whose clauses are binding and must be obeyed by both
parties. The social contract stipulates that the king is granted power by the
people to maintain order and create conditions that allow the people to safely
enjoy and exercise their natural rights, while the people are obligated to obey
the king’s government to the extent that their natural rights are duly
guaranteed by the king.
The idea that the people
possess political rights sparked the French Revolution in the late 18th century
and the American Revolution in the 18th century. Both revolutions were marked
by popular resistance against the king’s absolute power. The fall of absolute
monarchy allowed democracy to take shape once again. Furthermore, as a result
of developments in various spheres of life, the democratic system adopted is no
longer a pure or fully direct democracy (as in ancient Greece), but has
increasingly shifted toward representative democracy.
The concept and
implementation of democracy began to take concrete form as a political program
and system (government/state structure) toward the end of the 19th century. By
the mid-20th century, following the end of World War II and the liberation of
many nations from colonialism and imperialism, democracy began to play a
significant role as a system of government and state administration. And now,
at the beginning of the 21st century, democracy has become a system of government—and
a way of life—that is widely embraced by people across the globe.
It could be said that in the
21st century, the world has been swept up in a wave of democracy, leading the
21st century to be frequently referred to as the “century of democracy”—as well
as the “century of human rights.” As awareness of human rights and the urgency
of peace and prosperity continues to grow, the implementation of democracy has
also become an increasingly serious demand. In fact, the implementation of
democracy has even become a prerequisite for the implementation of other
programs. International aid and cooperation, for example, in the 21st century
are almost always provided on the condition of democracy; that is, cooperation
will take place and aid will be provided to a country only if that country can
demonstrate that it has implemented democracy properly and effectively. ***
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